Mill's Utilitarianism, UC Davis Philosophy 1, G. J. Mattey

Mill's Utilitarianism
UC Davis Philosophy 1
G. J. Mattey

Utilitarianism Philosophy 1 Spring, 2002 G. J. Mattey	John Stuart Mill Born 1806 Son of philosopher James Mill Learned Greek and Latin as a child Administrator in East India Company Member of Parliament Died 1873
Mill's Contributions Defended phenomenalism, the view that physical objects are "permanent possibilities of sensation" Developed "Mill's methods" for inductive reasoning Applied scientific method to social sciences Refined and defended the principle of utility Defended a strong libertarian principle Argued for the equality of women Promoted environment, population control	The Method of Ethics No progress has resulted from all the work in philosophy directed toward finding the nature of the good A problem is that we ought to know what right and wrong are before we can tell whether an action is right or wrong But this is the reverse of scientific procedure, which begins with the particular and works toward general principles
Moral Sense Some recent philosophers have postulated the existence of a moral sense or intuition But a moral sense is not supposed to detect particular cases of right and wrong action, only general principles So if there is a moral sense, ethics still proceeds differently from the sciences Moreover, the intuitive school of ethics has never produced an adequate set of moral principles	A Priori Ethics Some recent philosophers have held that the general principles of morality are discovered a priori Most do not provide a single moral principle Kant did produce one: the categorical imperative But he could not successfully deduce actual duties from that principle There is no logical contradiction in thinking a bad maxim as universal, only consequences no one would choose to incur
The Greatest Happiness Principle Actions are right in proportion to their tendency to produce happiness We cannot prove that happiness is the ultimate end of human action But we can provide rational grounds for accepting that happiness is such an end Mill begins with examples designed to clear up misconceptions	Utility Utility is pleasure and absence of pain It is not what is merely useful Pleasure and the absence of pain is happiness Human pleasure is not that of a swine, so the end of human action is not the pleasure of a swine Human pleasure includes pleasures of The intellect Feelings and imagination Moral sentiments
A Hierarchy of Pleasures Some of these pleasures are higher than others The difference is in quality It is measured in terms of preferences of all or nearly all people Some pleasures are so preferred that a considerable amount of discomfort is tolerated for their sake Those of the higher faculties are preferred in this way by the competent, from their sense of dignity	The Base Life "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied" People do sink into a base life, but this is because they have lost their higher capacities These are difficult to establish and easily wither away Many distractions can drag us down The preference for higher pleasures by at least the majority is good reason to think they are better
The Possibility of Happiness The greatest happiness principle makes the ultimate end happiness, extended as much as possible to all humans or sentient creatures Is happiness possible in human beings? Mitigation of pain at least is possible Happiness is not a life of rapture, but a varied life of pleasures mixed with few pains If not for "the present wretched education and wretched social institutions," this would be attainable by all	Two Chief Forms of Happiness Most people have been satisfied by less than "a moderate share" of happiness This is due to the fact that happiness has two forms Tranquility Excitement Those with plenty of one can tolerate a large deficiency in the other The two are complementary to each other
Conditions for Happiness The greatest impediment to happiness is selfishness The greatest aid to happiness is cultivation Mental culture ought to be available to everyone living in a civilized country Most of the great evils in the world can be eliminated Poverty, by society and charity Disease, by education and sanitation	Nobility It is argued that it is moral to give up happiness and behave nobly But noble action concerns the happiness or requirements for the happiness of others The "noble" person who has some other ends"may be an inspiring proof of what men can do, but assuredly not an example of what they should"
The Golden Rule The rule, "to do as you would be done by," is a utilitarian rule It expresses that the happiness of the whole of humanity is paramount Utility would influence social institutions to promote happiness And it would influence education to do so as well	Too High a Standard? It has been objection that maximizing happiness is too high a standard for action But ethics does not require that acting according to its standard should be one's sole motivation Utilitarians have always held that the motive of an action is not the basis of its morality, though it reveals the moral worth of the agent Private utility, not universal utility, motivates most actions
Applying Standards Utilitarianism seems to deem the coldly calculating person most estimable But there is no necessary connection between virtues of character and goodness of action All systems of morality have the problem that they seem to promote extreme behavior It is better to err on the side of utility than the side of disutility	Godless? Utilitarianism is charged with being a godless ethics But it promotes happiness, which presumably is Gods end for humans as well Strict versions of divine law are a matter of interpretation of Gods will The utilitarian can interpret it as favoring happiness
Calculation There is not enough time to calculate the effects on happiness of all our actions But the whole history of humanity has made the calculations for us When one considers murder or theft, this is not the first time it has occurred to someone The beliefs which have come down through history are the rules of morality for the masses, subject to refinement by philosophers	Conflicting Considerations A final charge is that utilitarians can do what they please in the name of utility But every system of morality allows for exceptions due to conflicting obligations These are the real difficulties in ethics Utility can be invoked to resolve conflict There is no way to do so in other systems
The Sources of Obligation The question, "What is the source of obligation?" is common to all moral theories Only conventional morality escapes it, due to its familiarity For utilitarianism, it is a question as to why happiness should be promoted The question would not arise if people became accustomed to promoting happiness	Sanctions Utilitarianism has the same external sanctions as do other theories Hope of favor and fear of displasure Of fellow humans Of God Internal sanctions are those of conscience, which are very complex Conscience is a subjective feeling in our minds For utilitarians, this is a feeling for humanity Even for Kant, there is only a feeling of duty
Society Moral feelings may be innate or acquired There is no objection to a feeling for humanity being innate Mill believes the feeling for humanity is acquired, through development of our natural feelings This is based on society among equals, which promotes the utilitarian principle Social people pay regard to others "of course" The moral feeling is strengthened with the advance of political improvement	Proof of the Principle of Utility The only way to prove that happiness is the ultimate end of human actions is to note that it is what people actually do desire This is compatible with the desire for virtue, which is part of happiness The same holds for money, power, fame Each contributes to happiness, which is "not an abstract idea but a concrete whole" Virtue is higher, since it is never obnoxious
Justice People think our feeling of justice indicates that it is objectively real We get a conception of what we feel to be just by considering its many applications to Liberty Moral right of possession Desert Good faith Impartiality Equality What do they have in common?	Justice Defined Justice is commonly confused with ordinary morality Its distinctive feature is that it involves a claim from someone as a moral right We can only make this claim on someone who has a perfect duty to perform or not to perform an act So, it is not unjust not to be beneficent
Rule and Sanction The rule of justice is intended for the good of humanity It is more vital to human well-being than any other principle of action The feeling of justice is the sentiment that sanctions the rule: a desire for punishment of those who violate it It arises from the impulse of self-defense and the feeling of sympathy	.

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